Melanotan 1 is a synthetic analogue closely related to the naturally occurring peptide α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH, also referred to as Melanotan 2). α-MSH plays a key role in regulating skin and hair pigmentation by acting on melanocytes through strong binding to the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R). As a non-selective full agonist, α-MSH also activates melanocortin receptors 1, 3, 4, and 5. Melanotan 1 differs from α-MSH by a single amino acid substitution and was originally developed as a sunless tanning agent. Early studies confirmed its ability to induce pigmentation but also revealed broader effects, including changes in baseline metabolism. Research on Melanotan 1 and related melanocortin-binding peptides has since provided valuable insights into the melanocortin signaling system.

Semaglutide is a long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) developed for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. As an analogue of endogenous GLP-1, semaglutide binds to GLP-1 receptors to stimulate glucose-dependent insulin secretion, inhibit glucagon release, delay gastric emptying, and promote satiety, thereby improving glycemic control and reducing body weight (Nauck & Meier, 2019). Its molecular modifications, including substitution of alanine at position 8 and attachment of a C18 fatty diacid chain, extend its half-life to approximately one week, enabling once-weekly dosing (Marso et al., 2016). Semaglutide was initially approved for the management of type 2 diabetes under the trade name Ozempic and later for chronic weight management under the brand Wegovy. Large-scale clinical trials, such as the SUSTAIN and STEP programs, demonstrated significant reductions in glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), meaningful weight loss, and favorable cardiovascular outcomes in patients at high risk (Wilding et al., 2021; Marso et al., 2016). Beyond diabetes and obesity, ongoing research is evaluating semaglutide’s potential role in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders (Newsome et al., 2021). Given its robust clinical efficacy and broad therapeutic potential, semaglutide represents a major advancement in metabolic medicine and has reshaped the treatment paradigm for both diabetes and obesity.

Tirzepatide is a dual agonist targeting the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors—novel dual incretin-based therapy. Its design integrates both GLP-1 and GIP actions in a single molecule, enhancing insulin secretion, reducing glucagon levels, delaying gastric emptying, and promoting satiety through central nervous system pathways.

Tirzepatide is a dual agonist targeting the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors—novel dual incretin-based therapy. Its design integrates both GLP-1 and GIP actions in a single molecule, enhancing insulin secretion, reducing glucagon levels, delaying gastric emptying, and promoting satiety through central nervous system pathways.

Tirzepatide is a dual agonist targeting the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors—novel dual incretin-based therapy. Its design integrates both GLP-1 and GIP actions in a single molecule, enhancing insulin secretion, reducing glucagon levels, delaying gastric emptying, and promoting satiety through central nervous system pathways.

Cagrilintide is a long-acting analogue of amylin, a natural peptide released alongside insulin. In animal studies, it has shown potential for treating obesity and type 2 diabetes. Beyond these uses, research has explored its possible benefits for liver injury, alcohol-related liver disease, and cardiovascular conditions. There is also speculation about its role in Alzheimer’s disease, though no studies have yet been published in that area. Several trials have examined cagrilintide in combination with semaglutide for obesity and type 2 diabetes, with evidence suggesting the two agents may act synergistically to promote greater and more sustained weight loss. While preclinical findings are encouraging, clinical data in humans remain limited, and further studies are needed to fully establish its efficacy and safety.