Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is an essential pyridine nucleotide and ubiquitous coenzyme present in all living cells, where it plays a central role in cellular metabolism and bioenergetics. Acting as a redox mediator, NAD+ undergoes continuous interconversion between its oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) states, thereby facilitating electron transfer reactions fundamental to oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production. Beyond its canonical role in energy metabolism, NAD+ serves as a critical co-substrate in more than 500 enzymatic reactions, underscoring its broad involvement in cellular homeostasis. Accumulating evidence suggests that maintenance of NAD+ levels contributes to enhanced skeletal muscle function, neuroprotection, and attenuation of age-associated physiological decline.

MOTS-c is a 16–amino acid mitochondrial-derived peptide (MDP) that plays a key role in metabolic regulation. Produced within mitochondria, it helps maintain cellular energy balance by influencing glucose metabolism, insulin sensitivity, and stress-response pathways. MOTS-c can translocate to the nucleus, where it regulates the expression of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolic adaptation, particularly during metabolic stress. Studies indicate that MOTS-c enhances exercise performance, reduces obesity and insulin resistance, and provides protective effects against conditions such as osteoporosis, metabolic disorders, and age-related diseases. In summary, MOTS-c supports metabolic homeostasis, healthy aging, and improved physical performance while mitigating the risk of obesity, insulin resistance, and related disease states.

Kisspeptin plays a key role in regulating hormone secretion involved in reproduction. It has been shown to impact testosterone levels as well as sex-related behaviors such as libido and motivation. Emerging research also indicates that kisspeptin may counteract certain effects of aging.

Triple receptor agonist: Retatrutide (also known as LY-3437943) simultaneously targets three receptors GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon (GCG). This sets it apart from single (e.g., semaglutide) or dual agonists (e.g., tirzepatide)

Tirzepatide is a dual agonist targeting the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors—novel dual incretin-based therapy. Its design integrates both GLP-1 and GIP actions in a single molecule, enhancing insulin secretion, reducing glucagon levels, delaying gastric emptying, and promoting satiety through central nervous system pathways.

Semaglutide is a long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) developed for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. As an analogue of endogenous GLP-1, semaglutide binds to GLP-1 receptors to stimulate glucose-dependent insulin secretion, inhibit glucagon release, delay gastric emptying, and promote satiety, thereby improving glycemic control and reducing body weight (Nauck & Meier, 2019). Its molecular modifications, including substitution of alanine at position 8 and attachment of a C18 fatty diacid chain, extend its half-life to approximately one week, enabling once-weekly dosing (Marso et al., 2016). Semaglutide was initially approved for the management of type 2 diabetes under the trade name Ozempic and later for chronic weight management under the brand Wegovy. Large-scale clinical trials, such as the SUSTAIN and STEP programs, demonstrated significant reductions in glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), meaningful weight loss, and favorable cardiovascular outcomes in patients at high risk (Wilding et al., 2021; Marso et al., 2016). Beyond diabetes and obesity, ongoing research is evaluating semaglutide’s potential role in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders (Newsome et al., 2021). Given its robust clinical efficacy and broad therapeutic potential, semaglutide represents a major advancement in metabolic medicine and has reshaped the treatment paradigm for both diabetes and obesity.

Epithalon (Epitalon) is a synthetic tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) originally developed as an analogue of the naturally occurring pineal peptide complex, Epithalamin. It has been proposed to act as a modulator of telomerase activity, the ribonucleoprotein enzyme complex responsible for the preservation and elongation of telomeric DNA sequences at chromosomal termini. Experimental evidence suggests that Epithalon may facilitate telomere extension, thereby enhancing genomic stability, delaying replicative senescence, and exerting potential geroprotective effects through the attenuation of age-associated cellular decline.

CJC-1295 DAC is a synthetic peptide designed as an analog of growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH). Its primary purpose is to stimulate the pituitary gland to release more growth hormone, which subsequently elevates levels of IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1). What sets the DAC version apart from the non-DAC form is the addition of a “Drug Affinity Complex.” This chemical modification allows CJC-1295 DAC to bind to albumin in the bloodstream, extending its half-life from just minutes to several days. Because of this extended duration, a single administration can keep growth hormone levels elevated for nearly a week, making it significantly more efficient in terms of dosing frequency compared to its short-lived counterpart. In research contexts, CJC-1295 DAC has been studied for its potential to promote tissue repair, support lean muscle growth, improve fat metabolism, enhance sleep quality, and contribute to overall cellular rejuvenation. These effects are largely connected to the consistent elevation of growth hormone and IGF-1, which play central roles in recovery, metabolism, and anti-aging pathways. Despite these promising avenues, CJC-1295 DAC remains a research chemical rather than an approved therapeutic drug. Human studies are limited, and while side effects observed have included injection site reactions, water retention, flushing, and tingling, the long-term implications are not yet fully understood. Because of this, its use outside of supervised research carries risks, and it is not approved by regulatory authorities for medical treatment.